Childhood Obesity Essay - 955 Words

Do you get enough exercise? Are you sure about that? Or how about this, are you overweight, do you even know? Today’s adolescents don’t. In fact today’s adolescents face serious risk from their lack of activity. Today’s children are obese because they have developed some very bad habits related to healthy living and as result can suffer serious physical and psychological damage. Perhaps the most damaging health habit kids today have is their complete and total lack of exercise. Children today are more inclined to a sedentary behavior. Movies, television, the Internet, etc. are all magnets for kids, and while these mediums of entertainment aren’t altogether â€Å"evil† they can breed docile attitudes. If too much time is spent watching†¦show more content†¦Although an unhealthy diet is never a good thing, even with a moderate amount of exercise adolescents can effectively fend off obesity and the negative affects that follow. On the other hand, not all cases of childhood obesity are a result of external forces. In some cases a child’s problem with their weight is mainly a genetic problem. In this case even the healthiest of habits may not be enough to prevent a child from becoming obese. (American Obesity Association) Yet the dramatic increase of overweight adolescents in the past few decades has clearly not been a result of genetics, but rather has in fact been do to poor health habits. Sadly, childhood obesity has more damaging effects than just what is visible on the exterior. When children become overweight they put themselves at great risk for certain conditions that were once thought to be rare in children, these conditions include type 2 diabetes, asthma, and hypertension. Other conditions include orthopedic damage, like stress on the joints caused by excess weight and skin damage like heat rashes and monilial dermatitis. As well, children and adolescents who are obese put themselves at risk of becoming obese adults. Overweight adults are at an even greater risk to suffer from potentially life threatening conditions such as heart disease, high blood pressure and certain forms of cancer. Overweight adults are also at risk for type 2 diabetes.Show MoreRelatedChildhood Obesity : A Obesity1247 Words   |  5 PagesChildhood Obesity: A Review to Prevent the Risk Factors of Childhood Obesity in Our Community. The rates of childhood obesity Worldwide are alarmingly high! Obesity is a global nutritional concern and leads to horrible consequences on our children and becomes a worldwide pandemic. Worldwide estimates of obesity are as high as 43 million, and rates continue to increase each year. 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Education Values Essays - 780 Words

Discussions on particular educational curricular issues or programs reflect not only educational values but societal values as well. Three areas in particular that have been eliciting much discussion are bilingual education programs, services within schools for gay and lesbian students, and inclusion of multicultural curricula. Among each of these programs, questions have been raised about their relativity to education and the comprehensive research to prove that these programs are beneficial to students. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp; Bilingual education is a fairly new program, in which foreign-born students learn English for one period during the day while all their other classes are taught in their native tongue (Holloway). This†¦show more content†¦This type of scenario is also evident in high schools when it comes to services for gay and lesbian students. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;At several high schools in Westchester County, homosexual students have chosen home schooling in order to avoid taunting and harassing school days (Lombardi). Although many schools have formed â€Å"tolerance clubs† and â€Å"diversity club† students still feel that change is coming very slowly. Homophobic comments ring throughout the hallways, but little is done to prevent it, especially when teachers refrain from doing anything about it. Students feel that toleration of these anti-gay slurs have driven them to dreading going to school because they are having a sense of isolation (Lombardi). On the other hand, many clubs have flourished in the past year, and are beginning to see more and more straight students attending. 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Osteology Estimating Femur Length from the Diameter of the Femoral Shaft Free Essays

string(135) " for males and females on the advice of Trotter and Gleser \(1952\) who state the specificity of such measurements in relation to sex\." School of Biological Earth Sciences BIEGN3005 Honours Project March 2010 Student name: Stephen Dempsey Supervisor name: Professor Alan Turner Estimating femur length from the diameter of the femoral shaft Stephen Dempsey BIEGN300 Honours Project Person Number: 343106 Submission Date: 5th March 2010 Abstract Bone lengths can be used to provide stature estimations in case of unidentified skeletal remains, an important tool in forensic and bioarchaelogical cases. Where the bones are broken or fragmented, regression equations can be used to estimate total bone length from its fragments, which in turn can be used to estimate stature. The aim of this study was to test 2 new measurements of the femoral shaft to see if they could be used as predictors of maximum femoral length. We will write a custom essay sample on Osteology: Estimating Femur Length from the Diameter of the Femoral Shaft or any similar topic only for you Order Now The minimum transverse femoral shaft diameter and the minimum anterior-posterior femoral shaft where measured on a small sample of an archaeological population from Poulton, Cheshire, along with the maximum femur length for each sample. Simple linear regression analysis was performed and the results showed that the minimum transverse femoral shaft diameter correlated significantly in both males (R2=. 635, p=0. 006) and females (R2=0. 8, p=? 0. 001) with maximum femur length. The minimum anterior-posterior femoral shaft diameter showed no significant correlation with maximum femur length. Subsequently, regression equations were presented for the significant correlations. Further research is needed to validate the results and to improve the accuracy of the method. 1. Introduction The role of a forensic anthropologist in forensic and archaeological cases is to establish demographics (population affinity, age, sex and stature), time since death and cause of death from an individual†™s remains (Chibba et al, 2006). The use of stature as a biological characteristic of identity can significantly contribute to the identification of unknown skeletal remains. Numerous areas of the skeleton have been used to try and determine an individual’s living height such as the upper limb bones (Rao et al. 1989), lower limb bones (Trotter and Gleeson, 1952), the metatarsals (Cordiero et al, 2009) and the skull (Ryan and Bidmos, 2007). Hauser et al. (2005) provide a good review of the past research in the area of stature estimation. One of the methods used in the estimation of stature is the formulation of regression equations from measurements of various bone lengths. Pearson (1899) was the first to derive regression equations for estimating stature, and since then it has grown to be the method of choice among most anthropologists. Many of the methods used to approximate stature require complete or near complete bones, so consequently few studies have been done on incomplete or fragmentary bones (Bidmos, 2008). Forensic anthropologists are often confronted with fragmented bones and in these cases it is impossible to derive regression equations directly from bone length (Rao et al. 989). Wright and Vasquez (2003) state the problems they faced in Guatemala in which they were often unable to estimate stature from bone length due to the rapid deterioration of bone in the tropical environment. This is only one of many factors that lead to the all too frequent recovery of broken or fragmented remains. Therefore it is beneficial to have equations available for bone length or stature derived from measurements of smaller segments or landmarks on the chosen bone. The femur is the favoured bone of use among anthropologists in estimating stature, due to its high correlation with height in addition to the fact that it is one of bones most often recovered (Simmons et al. 1990). A number of measurements of the femur have already been reported to have good correlations with femur length. Many of these measurements focus on the proximal and distal ends of the femur such as the upper epicondylar length, epicondylar breath, vertical neck diameter and the bicondylar breathe (Brauer, 1988), yet few have focused on measurements of the femoral shaft. This pilot study looks to test the validity of 2 measurements from the femoral shaft as predictors of maximum femoral length. The points of reference chose on the femur are the minimum transverse femoral shaft diameter (TRD) and the minimum anterior-posterior diameter (APD) of the femoral shaft. The samples being used are that of an archaeological population recovered from a medieval cemetery in Poulton, Cheshire. The aim is to use linear regression analysis to test the assumption that there is a significant correlation between these measurements and the maximum femoral length. A further aim is to produce regression equations that can be used on other skeletal remains from the Poulton collection for estimating maximum femur length. 2. Materials and Methods 2. 1 Samples The samples used in this study were obtained from the Poulton collection housed at Liverpool John Morres University. Due to the small size of the collection at present and the poor condition of some of the bones, a total number of 18 left sided femora were selected for use in the study. These femora were chosen on the basis of completeness and measurability. All the samples were obtained from adults skeletal remains and the number of male and females femora was 10 and 8 respectively. 2. 2 Measurements The following 3 measurements were taken on each of the 18 samples: i. Maximum length of the femur (MAXL) ii. Minimum anterior-posterior femoral shaft diameter (APD) iii. Minimum transverse femoral shaft diameter (TRD) The MAXL measurement was taken as described by Brauer (1988). The APD and TRD measurements were taken as described by Ziylin and Mursid (2002). The MAXL was measured using an osteometric board. The APD and TRD were measured using a sliding callipers with an accuracy of 0. 1 mm. Linear regression analysis was carried using the SPSS statistic program to see if any correlation existed between the measurements taken of the femoral shaft (APD and TRD) and the maximum length of the femur. All analysis was carried out separately for males and females on the advice of Trotter and Gleser (1952) who state the specificity of such measurements in relation to sex. You read "Osteology: Estimating Femur Length from the Diameter of the Femoral Shaft" in category "Essay examples" 3. Results The descriptive statistics for males and females are shown in Table 1. Males showed the highest mean values of each of the 3 measurements taken. Males also showed the higher standard deviations in respect to MAXL and APD, with females showing a higher standard deviation for TRD. Table 1 Descriptive statistics for measurements of male and female left femora. All descriptive values are given in mm. Measurements| Male| Female| | N| Mean| Std. dev| N| Mean | Std. dev| MAXL| 10| 466. 60| 16. 965| 8| 429. 13| 11. 643| TRD| 10| 27. 910| 1. 365| 8| 24. 725| 1. 752| APD| 10| 28. 190| 2. 497| 8| 27. 138| 1. 840| Table 2 shows the results of the linear regression analysis that was performed. Both APD and TRD were regressed against MAXL according to sex. The analysis showed that the variable APD showed no significant correlation to MAXL for males (R2=0. 154, P=0. 262) or females (R2=0. 044, P=0. 619). TRD provided more positive results showing a moderate significant correlation in respect to males (R2=0. 635, P=0. 006), and a strong significant correlation in respect to females (R2=0. 88, P=0. 001). Scatter plots (Figure 1. and Figure 2. ) show the distribution of the TRD among males and females along the line of regression. These graphs add weight to the correlations presented in Table 3 in that it is clear the females fit line of regression better than the males. Regression equations for estimating MAXL from measurements of TRD are provided in Table 3. The standard error of the estimates is also shown in Table 3, which is considerably lower in females. Due to this lack any significant correlation for the APD measurement it was decided that it would be irrelevant to perform multiple regression analysis using both the TRD and APD variables. As a result no regression equations were computed for APD. Table 2 Results of linear regression analysis of MAXL (dependant value) against TRD (independent value) and MAXL (dependant value) and APD (independent value) for males and females. Significance is reported at the 5% level. Measurements| Male| Female| | B*| Sig(B)*| R2| F-value| P-value| B*| Sig(B)*| R2| F-Value| P-Value| APD| 2. 668| 0. 262| 0. 154| 1. 459| 0. 262| 1. 322| 0. 619| 0. 044| 0. 274| 0. 619| TRD| 9. 91| 0. 006| 0. 635| 2. 895| 0. 006| 6. 234| ? 0. 001| 0. 88| 42. 810| ? 0. 001| * B – Slope of the regression line Sig (B)* – Signification of the slope in relation to zero. 0. 05 = slope significantly different from zero. Table 3 Regression equations for estimation of the MAXL from measurement of the TRD. Separate equations for males and females. Measurement| Male | Female| TRD| MAXL=9. 91(TRD) +190. 1 (SEE* =10. 865mm)| MAXL=6. 234(TRD) +274. 990 (SEE* =4. 365)| * SEE – Standard error of the estimate Figure 1 Regression of minimum transverse femoral shaft diameter on maximum length of the femur in females. Figure 2 Regression of minimum transverse femoral shaft diameter on maximum length of the femur in males. 4. Discussion The analysis performed on the 2 measurements taken from the femoral shaft gave very contrasting results. It is clear that APD is not a reliable indicator of femur length with equally poor correlation shown for both males (0. 54) and females (0. 044). A contributing factor to this is the differences among individuals in the size and pronunciation of the linea aspera, a morphological feature of the femur that runs along the posterior shaft of the femur. Since the linea aspera is a point of attachment for a number of muscles, it can be presumed that intrapopulation variation in muscle mass and activity contributes to the low cor relation obtained (Wright and Vasquez, 2003). On the other hand the significant correlations (Table 2) show that TRD is a good predictor of maximum femur length in both males (0. 635) and females (0. 8) in cases where the femora are broken or incomplete. Therefore the equations (Table 3) obtained can be used to estimate maximum femur length and thereafter stature using the appropriate equations/tables/ multiplication factors available in the literature (Trotter and Gleser 1952, 1958) (Simmons et al. 1990). Some authors have argued that it is more accurate to calculate stature directly from bone measurements (direct method), rather than the 2-step approach of first estimating the bone length and then using that value to obtain an estimation of stature which is known as the indirect method (Simmons et al. 1990). Bidmos (2009) compared the 2 methods using measurements of the femur and found the direct method to be more accurate; in contrast to earlier work by Steel (1970), who found the opposite to be the case. Bidmos (2009) commented on the fact that both steps of the indirect method incur standard errors, hence increasing the overall error value. His results reflect this observation. Since this study is only focused on determining the validity of femoral shaft measurements as predictors of femoral length it is thought that concentrating on the direct method in future studies of the Poulton collection may provide more accurate stature estimations. Other factors also need to be taken into consideration before using the results obtained in this study. The number of samples used is considerably low due to the current size of the Poulton collection and the damage some of the individual skeletons have incurred. For these reasons it is impossible to tell whether the results accurately represent the Poulton population. For instance, in Table 1 it can be seen that standard deviations for MAXL is higher in males than females, indicating that there is a greater variability in the maximum femur length among males. This explains lower correlation obtained in the males samples when MAXL was regressed against TRD. A repeat of this study with a greater number of samples may further improve the accuracy of the derived equations (Table 3), particularly in males. Another area of concern is the population specificity of such regression equations. Ethnicity, heredity, climate and nutrition status are known to affect length of long bones (Prasad et al, 1996), which in turn affects stature. From this, one could conclude that the equations in Table 3 are specific to the Poulton collection and any attempt at using them on a different population should be approached with caution. In light of this remark it is also advised that equations for estimating stature from maximum femur length be produced specifically for the Poulton collection, as any of the existing equations may prove unreliable due to these population biases. 5. Conclusions This study shows that the TRD measurements taken from the femur is a good predictor of MAXL. This is confirmed in the results with the correlations eing 0. 6 (Table 2), P-values being 0. 01 (Table 2) and the standard error of the estimated being 11mm (Table 3). However it is advised that caution should be taken in using the results until further efforts are made to validate and improve the given regression equations (Table 3) with the use of large sample sizes and different populations. It can also be assumed that these equations are populat ion specific and may prove misleading if used on populations other than that used in this study. The APD measurements of the femur showed to be a very poor predictor of MAXL (Table 2 and Table 3). This has been contributed to the morphological differences between individuals in the linea aspera. It is unclear whether further analysis could yield contrasting results but on the evidence of the results gathered from this study it is advised that the APD variable be disregarded in future research on stature and bone length estimation. Acknowledgments I would like to thank Professor Alan turner for help in choosing the topic. I would also like to thank Colin Armstrong of the LJMU technical staff for his help in accessing the materials necessary for completing this research. Bibliography Bidmos, M. A. (2009). Fragmentary femora: evaluation of the direct and indirect methods in stature reconstruction. Forensic Science international. 192 (1-3), pp. 131-135. Bidmos, M . A. (2008). Fragmentary femora in stature reconstruction of South Africans of European descent. Journal of Forensic Science. 53, (5), 1044–1048. Brauer, G. Osteometri in: Martin, R. and Knubmann, B. (1998). Anthropologie: Handbuch der Versleichenden Biologie des Menschen. pp. 160-323,G. Fischer, Stuttgart, Germany. Chibba, K. , Bidmos, M. A. 2007) Using Tibial fragments from South Africans of European decent to estimate maximum tibia length and stature. Forensic Science International. 169, 145-151. Cordiero, C. , Munez-Baros, J. I. , Wasterlain, S. , Eugenia. , C. and Viera, D. N. (2009) Predicting adult stature from metacarpal length in a Portuguese population. Forensic Science International. 193, 131. e1 – 131. e4 Hauser, R. Smolinski, J. and Gos, T. (2004). The estimation of stature on the basis of measurements of the femur. Forensic Science International. 147, (2-3), 185-190. Pearson K. (1899). Mathematical contributions to the theory of evolution, in: On the reconstruction of the stature of prehistoric races, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London, 192, 169–244. Prasad, R. Vettive, S. Jeyaseelan, L. Isaac, B. Chandi, G. (1996). Reconstruction of femur length from markers of its proximal end. Clinical Anatomy. 9, 28-32. Rao, K. V. S. , Gupta, G. D, Sehgl, V. N. (1989) Determination of length of upper limb long bones from their fragments. Forensic Science International. 41, 219-223 Ryan, I. and Bidmos, M. A. (2007) Skeletal height reconstruction from measurements of the skull in indigenous South Africans. Forensic Science International. 167, 16-21 Simmons, T. , Jantz, R. L and Bass, W. M. (1990) Stature estimation from fragmentary remains: a review of the Steele method. Journal of Forensic Science. 35, 628-636 Steele, G. (1970) Estimation of stature from fragments of long limb bones, Personal Identification in Mass Disasters, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington DC, 85–97. Trotter, M. Gleser, G C. (1958) A re-evaluation of estimation of stature based on measurements of stature taken during life and of bones after death, American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 6, 79–124. Trotter, M. Gleser, G C. (1952) Estimation of stature from long bones of Ameerican Whites and Negroes. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 10, 453-514 Wright, L. E and Vasquez, M. A. (2003) Estimating the length of incomplete long bones: Forensic standards from Guatemala. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 120, 233-251 Ziylin, T. and Murshid K. A. (2002) Analysis of the Anatolian hu man femur anthropometry. Turkish Journal of Medical Science. 32, 231-235 How to cite Osteology: Estimating Femur Length from the Diameter of the Femoral Shaft, Essay examples

Business Communication and its Importance for Receiving Skills

Question: Discuss about theBusiness Communication and its Importance for Receiving Skills. Answer: Interpersonal communication may be defined as the exchange of important information and details between two or more individuals. Effective communication skills are important in interacting with others and help in the advancement of interpersonal relationships between the speaker and listener. During the process of interpersonal communication, information is sent by one individual and received by another (Robinson et al. 2013). Effective interpersonal communication takes place when both the message sender and the message receiver understand the message and the output of the conversation is successful. Development of proper skills for interpersonal communication is extremely important. These often include active listening, proper feedback giving and receiving skills, maintaining proper body language while communicating, maintenance of courtesy and many others. This assignment will try to highlight how effective interpersonal communication is influenced by values, attitudes and self est eem. Values can be defined as principles as well as standards or qualities which an individual or group of people consider in high regards. Values are those attributes which help in guiding the different ways people lead their lives and take proper decisions. Values are attributes which individuals hold dear along with those qualities which those individuals consider them to be worth of. This is one of the most important traits in an individual that often influences his interpersonal communication skills. Values make people judgemental and thereby it has immense impact on the communication between two individuals. Values which are important to speakers may not match with the values of the listener and hence it plays an important role in interpersonal communication. Researchers are of the opinion that values dictate about how individuals should be behaving and therefore this procedure can totally modify the interpersonal communication skills of an individual (Rosenberg 2015). Values may be of two types. The first type of values may be explicit which are mainly stated overtly in value judgment. It may be also implicit which can be inferred in non-verbal behaviour. They are usually held or seen as a part of cultural system as well as pattern. Therefore an individual will often develop several cultural values which reflect in his interpersonal skill and thereby modify the communication that takes place between that individual and other listeners. Researchers are of the opinion that cultural values are also an important set of values besides personal values of an individual. Culture bound values are exceptionally important for intercultural communication. These values involve power distance as well as uncertainty avoidance (Mackie and Hamilton 2014). Moreover individualism versus collectivism and masculinity are also important attributes that come into play during interpersonal communication. Low and high context communication as well as immediacy and expressiveness, sel f disclosure and also emotional and behavioral expressiveness are important elements that modify interpersonal communication. In schools, colleges, science, business and many others, often people are trained to talk in third person and mention just about facts which leaves values out of communications. However, in reality, these result in less understanding of the messages and the messages are also not well absorbed. When an individual gets the scope of expressing values confidently, the words about new behaviors or alternative solutions not only surprise people but also help in grabbing attention. These value based conversation helps listeners drawing in and also earns their trust. Beside values helping in grabbing attention, it also helps in finding common good. When individuals talk about their values, they can connect with people and thereby find common grounds and build consensus. It might happen that likeminded people can often disagree of the various types of details of new initiatives as well as a proposed legislation also disagreeing and discussing how to achieve it. However, the same people can find common good when different principles are taken in consideration like opportunity, liberty, equality, family as well as fairness. Guiding values and principles can help individuals engaged in communication to find consensus which at a high level can open doors as well as minds leading to more fruitful discussion. Being relevant is also an important value in interpersonal communication besides finding common good. When individuals are engaged in interpersonal communication while speaking of their values, they actually speak common languages which are relevant. Researchers are of the opinions that connecting to audiences with the help of words, symbols, images and stories grounded in values eventually help in making new ways accessible and also relevant to busy lives of the people (Samovar et al. 2014). Researchers are of the opinions that values resonate in human hearts, minds as well as gut. They are of the opinion that when emotions and reasons collide, emotion variably wins. They are of the opinion that values work not only at the level of the mind but they also touch the emotional workings of the hearts and are expressed as gut instincts. Being honest is yet another value based interpersonal communication that brings out successful outcomes among individuals. When individuals are stating their values clearly as well as consistently, they automatically give authenticity to their words spoken in interpersonal communication. When individuals communicate about hat each of them stand for like the values that guide their businesses, their work life, their personal lives, the principles that they pass on the children and others, their words get marked by authenticity the famous cognitive linguist namely George Lakoff had already stated that A position on issues should follow from ones values, and the choice of issues and policies should symbolize those values. Attitudes are usually conceptualized by the presence of three important components. These involve cognitive, affective as well as conative components. They play an important role in developing interpersonal communication skills. The cognitive components mainly involve beliefs of different individuals about their attitude objects. The affective component involves different emotional as ell as evaluative reaction to that of the attitude object. The last one is the conative component. This mainly involves the behavioral intentions developed towards the attitude object (Prllas 2014). One of the most suitable example that can be depicted as a disruptive attitude during interpersonal communication is racial prejudices. Researchers above define prejudices in communication as a judgment which remains based on the individuals previous experiences as well as decisions. Prejudices in interpersonal communication may be of two different types which often affect the quality of the conversations between individuals. They are either positive or negative. Although prejudices can be determined as both positive and negative, there remains a high tendency of individuals to determine them as negative. Researchers are of the opinion that negative ethnic prejudice actually mainly refers to act as a negative attitude. It can be defined as an antipathy which remains based on faulty as well as inflexible generalization. This may be felt and expressed during interpersonal communication which may affect the opposite listener and may affect relationship development and bonding (Koerner a nd Fitzpatrick 2013). This kind of attitude may be directed towards group as well as whole of the race or even towards an individual as he or she may belong to the race. This type of attitudes is criticized ad therefore individuals should try to develop positive attitudes with equal outlook towards all which when expressed in interpersonal communication will bring out positive outcomes. Attitudes and perception also impact business communication in both positive as well as negative ways. Often employees develop extreme views and thereby fail to see others perspectives. They develop the attitude that the opposite person is wrong and therefore this attitude involuntarily gets reflected in interpersonal communication creating feeling of disrespect for each others. Again there are individuals with similar attitudes who inadvertently overlook instances of miscommunication. This is mainly because they develop the attitude that they are always in agreement with the other. Interpersonal communication may be affected by impact of pre-established attitudes. If one individual has a firm attitude about a particular issue, he is likely to communicate about it with a very strict and black-and-white perspective. If one individual is determined that starving is the best way of getting lean, then even most comprehensive and compelling arguments for the need of balanced diet will not register with that person as she had developed a pre-existing attitude. This affects proper flow of interpersonal communication because this ingrained way of thinking impacts the individuals ability to accurately and fully comprehend anything other than what she herself believes in (Greenwald 2014). Attitude of preconceived notions often affects the ability to accurately communicate in a given situation. For example, if an individual colleague comes up with an opinion of conducting survey to measure the needs of employees and the later employees had already developed a notion that surveys do not provide proper results, then the latters attitude will impact on the accurate and effective communication between both the individuals (Abrams, Zimbres and Carr 2015). Often attitudes developed form previous experiences can also affect a present interpersonal communications the individual may show judgmental attitudes towards the current situation. Another issue found due to improper attitudes is incomplete communication. When an individual leader is assigning new member of the team, his attitude may make him perceive that the new member is already experienced and can thereby provide best results. So he did not communicate with him properly by through training. This incomplete communication due to improper attitudes may result in loss of the teamwork and may affect productivity. Researchers are also of the opinions that overly optimistic attitudes assign can cause ineffective forms of communications. Often many individuals remain too casual with their approach and attitudes that do not care for reminders and last minute workers or unmet deadlines which are not met on time. Due to such attitude, communication may not simply register with him. Often individuals may have the attitude of always providing a conflicting in to every interpersonal communications and thereby people may find it difficult to communicate with civility. Often this results the individual in avoiding others and thereby limit all forms of his communication and interactions. This often leads to a variety of miscommunication problems. This is mainly because they would neither step forwards to clarify and solve issues or take responsibility for problems which rise because of their joint failure to communicate (Heiss et al. 2015). Self esteem is the value that one places on herself or himself. Self esteem help to understand out identity and develop belief in ourselves. It I how an individual feels and how he perceives himself to be. People with high self esteem are usually found to be more outgoing. Therefore, they are more willing to communicate and try harder to complete a task even for the second time after failing for the first time. As they communicate effectively, they seem to perform well academically and professionally. They remain more shielded form any from of stress and tensions. On the other hands, it is found that lower self esteem makes individual aggressive towards others which makes communication difficult with such person. Three important components of self esteem guide interpersonal communication. These are need for control; need for inclusion as well as the need for affection. It is not that the individuals with higher self esteem need all the three components in higher amounts but that they are more successful at meeting these needs through their interpersonal communications with the others in comparison to those who has low self esteem. Conclusion: From the entire discussion, it becomes clear that changes which we want to see can come from value based businesses and mission-driven non profits which communicate form their values. Different articles, speeches as well as calls to action which remain grounded in values help in properly infusing every activities and works with power and meaning. It also makes sure that the chorus of the voices is consisted as well as honest. Maintaining proper values in interpersonal communication ensure successful outcomes in development of relationships both in personal and professional fronts and help in enhancement of ones own personality. Harboring proper attitudes are also exceptionally important for every individual for marinating effective interpersonal communication. Improper attitudes may involve being overly optimistic, becoming judgmental, occurrence of conflicts, incomplete communication and many others which affect the communication procedure and failure of effective outcomes. Individu als who have higher self esteem can communicate more effectively than those with lower self esteem. Therefore these three are indeed important aspects of interpersonal communication and should be properly developed by all to achieve success in life. References: Abrams, K.M., Zimbres, T. and Carr, C., 2015. Communicating Sensitive Scientific Issues: The Interplay Between Values, Attitudes, and Euphemisms in Communicating Livestock Slaughter.Science Communication,37(4), pp.485-505. Greenwald, A.G., 2014. Why attitudes are important: Defining attitude.Attitude structure and function,429. Heiss, S.N., Carmack, H.J. and Chadwick, A.E., 2015. Effects of interpersonal communication, knowledge, and attitudes on pertussis vaccination in Vermont.Journal of Communication in Healthcare,8(3), pp.207-219. Koerner, A.F. and Fitzpatrick, M.A., 2013. Communication in intact families.Routledge handbook of family communication, pp.129-144. Mackie, D.M. and Hamilton, D.L. eds., 2014.Affect, cognition and stereotyping: Interactive processes in group perception. Academic Press. Pellas, N., 2014. The influence of computer self-efficacy, metacognitive self-regulation and self-esteem on student engagement in online learning programs: Evidence from the virtual world of Second Life.Computers in Human Behavior,35, pp.157-170 Robinson, J.P., Shaver, P.R. and Wrightsman, L.S. eds., 2013.Measures of Personality and Social Psychological Attitudes: Measures of Social Psychological Attitudes(Vol. 1). Academic Press. Rosenberg, M., 2015.Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton university press. Samovar, L.A., Porter, R.E., McDaniel, E.R. and Roy, C.S., 2014.Intercultural communication: A reader. Cengage Learning.

Barbara Jordan - Biography and Career Profile

Barbara Jordan - Biography and Career Profile Barbara Jordan grew up in Houstons black ghetto, attended segregated public schools, and an all-black college, where she graduated magna cum laude. She was involved in debate and oratory, winning a number of awards. Known for: role in Watergate hearings; keynotes at 1976 and 1992 Democratic National Conventions; first Southern African American woman elected to Congress; second Southern African American elected to Congress after the end of Reconstruction; first African American woman in the Texas legislatureOccupation: lawyer, politician, teacher:Texas Senate 1967-1973, U.S. House of Representatives 1973-1979; professor of political ethics at University of Texas, Lyndon B. Johnson School of Public Affairs; chair of U.S. Commission on Immigration ReformDates: February 21, 1936 - January 17, 1996Also known as: Barbara Charline Jordan Law Career Barbara Jordan chose law as a career because she believed she would then be able to have an impact on racial injustice. She wanted to attend Harvards law school but was advised that a black woman student from a Southern school would probably not be accepted. Barbara Jordan studied law at Boston University, saying later, I realized that the best training available in an all-black instant university was not equal to the best training one developed as a white university student. Separate was not equal; it just wasnt. No matter what kind of face you put on it or how many frills you attached to it, separate was not equal. I was doing sixteen years of remedial work in thinking. After earning her law degree in 1959, Barbara Jordan returned to Houston, starting a law practice from her parents home and also getting involved in the 1960 election as a volunteer. Lyndon B. Johnson became her political mentor. Elected to the Texas Senate After  unsuccessful tries at being elected to the Texas House, in 1966 Barbara Jordan became the first African American since Reconstruction in the Texas Senate, the first black woman in the Texas legislature. A Supreme Court decision and redistricting to enforce one man, one vote helped make her election possible. She was reelected to the Texas Senate in 1968. Elected to Congress In 1972, Barbara Jordan ran for national office, becoming the first black woman elected to Congress from the South, and, with Andrew Young, one of the first two African Americans elected since Reconstruction to the U.S. Congress from the South. While in Congress, Barbara Jordan came to national attention with her strong presence on the committee holding Watergate hearings, calling for the impeachment of President Nixon on July 25, 1974. She was also a strong supporter of the Equal Rights Amendment, worked for legislation against racial discrimination, and helped establish voting rights for non-English-speaking citizens. 1976 DNC Speech At the 1976 Democratic National Convention, Barbara Jordan gave a powerful and memorable keynote speech, the first African American woman to give a keynote to that body. Many thought she would be named a vice presidential nominee, and later a Supreme Court justice. After Congress In 1977 Barbara Jordan announced she would not run for another term in Congress, and became a professor, teaching government at the University of Texas. In 1994, Barbara Jordan served on the U.S. Commission on Immigration Reform. When Ann Richards was the governor of Texas, Barbara Jordan was her ethics advisor. Barbara Jordan struggled for many years with leukemia and multiple sclerosis. She died in 1996, survived by her long-time companion, Nancy Earl. Background, Family: Father: Ben Jordan (Baptist minister, laborer)Mother: Arlyne (church activist) Education: Phillis Wheatley High School (1952)Texas Southern University (magna cum laude)Boston University (1959, law) Elections: 1960: volunteer for Lyndon B. Johnsons nomination1962: Texas House of Representatives (unsuccessful)1964: Texas House of Representatives (unsuccessful)1966: Texas Senate (successful)1972: U.S. House of Representatives (successful)1974, 1976: re-elected to U.S. House

Historical Methodologies

Historical Methodologies The credibility and accuracy of any historically account depends on the type of approach that the historians use in the course of their work. Historians must be conversant with available methodologies and approaches in order for them to handle evidence collection and interpretation in the best way possible (Green, 1999). Historical research and analysis is not an easy task as it seems due to the technicalities involved.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on Historical Methodologies specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Historical methodologies and approaches consist of concepts and techniques used by historians to explore and highlight different types of historical events (Green, 1999). Each historical approach tends to challenge previous approaches as it attempts to improve historical research and analysis. This paper will discuss different types of types of historical approaches used by historians and the contribution th at each approach makes to the general field of historical studies. Empiricism is a historical methodology that is based on the theory that human knowledge is gained through knowledge and experience. This approach refutes the argument that human beings possess some innate ideas that can not be imparted through experience (Green, 1999). According to the empiricism approach, history can only be retrieved through sensory perception and scientific experiments. The empiricism historical approach emphasizes the fact that historians must test their theories and hypotheses through physical observation of events and other natural phenomena rather than mere intuition. The empiricism approach is widely used in philosophy and history when conducting a theoretical inquiry. The hypotheses used in this approach must be testable using scientific methods. Empiricism completely opposes rationalism which emphasizes on intuition and reason as definite sources of knowledge. The use of human senses to per ceive and conceive historical knowledge and other types of knowledge is what the empiricism approach focuses on (Green, 1999). The Empiricism approach was widely developed by Aristotle and is among the early historical approaches. Historical materialism is a concept developed by Karl Marx and has become a very important methodological approach in the conception of history. This approach is used in the study of economic history and the general society. The historical materialism approach emphasizes the fact that the economic activities that human beings engage in give rise to the non-economic features of the society (Howell, 2001). Political structures and social classes come as result of economic activity. The original argument of the materialism approach was that human beings have to produce the fundamental necessities of life to guarantee survival.Advertising Looking for term paper on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn Mo re Despite this methodological approach being used to understand historical developments and the society in general, it also emphasizes on the importance of production relations in sustaining economic production. Division of labor is key to maintaining the production network where human beings perform different duties in the production of the various necessities of life (Howell, 2001). The ability to use means of production such as human knowledge and raw materials characterize the success of the Marxist ideology. The materialism approach tries to highlight the modes of production that the society has employed over time. This approach sets to highlight the economic history of the society by examining the modes of production used in the society through time (Howell, 2001). In the course of interacting with nature, human beings are able to produce their material needs in different ways. According to Marx, the productive forces in the society determine the mode of production to be adopted by that society. Some of the modes of production that Marx came up with include communism, feudalism and capitalism as they follow each other in chronological order (Green, 1999). Materialism is a methodological approach that helps historians to fully comprehend the basis of change that constantly takes place in the human society. According to Marx, the human history is coherent in the manner that productive forces and modes of production are inherited from one generation to another as they continue to be improved and developed in tandem with technological advances and changing human needs. The struggle between different social classes for economic resources is what makes history (Green, 1999). The materialism approach is against the idea of human history being perceived as a series of accidents. The materialism approach emphasizes the fact that the present can only be understood by studying the past. Past events and activities shape the present both socially and economi cally. There are various observations through which history can be developed using the Marxist ideologies. To begin with, the social development of a society is entirely dependent on the amount of productive forces that the society has (Green, 1999). Social relationships within the society stem from production relations which human beings have no choice but to get involved. Productive forces determine whether production relationships develop or not. The mode of production plays a critical role in determining the rate at which the production forces develop. According to Marxist beliefs, the society is founded on its relations of production and modes of production. Economic exploitation in the society is brought about by a particular social class that uses the state as an instrument of forming and protecting their production relations (Green, 1999).Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on Historical Methodologies specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The materialism approach also disputes the fact that the historical process is predetermined. Social classes within the society struggle and in the process form the actual historical process. The society goes through various stages of economic transformation as a natural way of sustaining itself. The social science approach is one of the major methodologies used by sociology historians in an attempt to try and understand the sociological history of a particular society. Social science uses scientific method to analyze and understand the past social life. The field of social science is very wide and handles a lot of disciplines including historical research and analysis of social history (Howell, 2001). This approach does not deal with natural sciences but it employs the same methods used in studying natural science to explain and analyze the social life of a particular society. The social science approach uses both quantitative and qualitative techniques to interpret and come up with a definite historical account of the social life in a particular society. According to this approach, history can just be studied the same way mathematics and other natural sciences are studied. The social science approach was largely influenced by the industrial revolution that emphasized moral philosophy (Howell, 2001). This methodology employs the use of data and theory depending on what discipline the historian intents to study. Empirical observations and logic are the major components of the social science historical methodology. This approach differs with the materialism theory in the sense that the evidence collected is thoroughly studied using scientific methods. The social actions of a particular society are studied using statistical techniques such as open-ended interviews and questionnaires that are administered to a sample population. This approach is very comprehensive compared to the previous methodologies in the sense that it explains and d escribes historical findings rather than just predicting (Howell, 2001). The social science approach tests all hypotheses to establish the truth in them. All the possible explanations of a particular social action are provided by this approach. The study of social and cultural issues of the society has led to the development of new methodologies and approaches in order to increase the chances of coming up with more accurate results (Tosh, 2000). Social history has been replaced by cultural history due to the fact that the culture of the society preserves all the aspects of a particular society. Anthropology is a social science discipline that tends to explain the cultural orientation of different societies. The study of social and cultural histories of a particular community is very vital in the sense that it helps give a particular sense of identity to the community. Anthropology uses scientific and statistical methods to explain how the society is set up socially and culturally.Ad vertising Looking for term paper on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This new approach aims at describing the society in detail since the social science approach only deals with social life. This new approach bases it explanations on real facts rather than predictions and imagination. Social trends in the society are what forms social history which is established by using scientific methods. Social history explores how ordinary people within a society live (Tosh, 2000). Both political and intellectual histories are justified by the findings in the social field. The new social history approach explores the social history of a society in detail including labor history, family history, ethnic history, educational history together with demographic history. The new social approach is extended by the cultural approach that was established recently. The new cultural approach focuses more on cultural traditional customs, arts, languages and cultural interpretation of historical experiences (Tosh, 2000). The new cultural approach challenges the materialism ap proach which only highlights economic changes as a source of history. The cultural approach takes a lot of time because of the many cultural elements explored during research and analysis. Gender history is another type of historical approach that specifically explores the past from the gender perspective. This method tends to focus on the history of women and their changing roles in the society (Tosh, 2000). This type of historical approach has only been in place for a very short time but the impact it has made to the general field of history can not be underestimated. The gender approach faced a lot of challenges in its initial stages as many people were reluctant to accept women history as a historical discipline. This made the proponents of this approach to change its name from women history to gender history. This approach has gained a lot of support because many women are now getting interested in the historical profession. Women historians have been accused of being biased as they tend to highlight feminine issues rather than the general gender issues (Howell, 2001). The gender approach is categorized under supplementary history because women were conspicuously missing in the majority of previous historical recordings. This approach focuses on highlighting and position and role of women in history. Women play a very important role in the history of any community and the fact other historical methodologies do not highlight their contribution; the supporters of the gender approach have always challenged the credibility of previous historical approaches (Howell, 2001). The post modern historical approach includes both post-structural and post-colonial histories. The postmodern historical approach completely challenges all other traditional approaches by stating that there is a very thin line between facts and fiction. Postmodernists perceive all historical accounts as fiction. The postmodern approach encourages historians to use history as a way of promoti ng an ideology (Tosh, 2000). This methodology focuses on revising recorded history with an aim protecting social minorities from oppression. Postmodern history plays a major role in exposing past injustices with an aim of correcting them. The post-modern approach is always criticized for being radical and generalizing all historical events as fiction. Some of the injustices exposed by postmodern history include slavery, colonialism and other forms of oppression. The postmodern approach retells histories so that the oppressed groups in the society are empowered (Tosh, 2000). According to postmodernists, there is no way that the society can correct past mistakes if in the first place the people are not aware of the mistakes that were committed in the past. Postmodern historians argue that it is inevitable to avoid bias in history (Tosh, 2000). In conclusion, historical methodologies help historians a great deal in exploring the past. New historical approaches have been developed in or der too explore the past in detail. The discovery of many historical disciplines has contributed to the changes experienced in historical approaches. Each historical approach has got its theories and ideologies which gives historians the freedom to choose an approach that is relevant to their areas of specialization. Historical methodologies have completely change the way historical studies are conducted and as a result enabling the society to understand its past and at the same time use the historical knowledge to shape the present and the future. References Green, A. (1999). The houses of history: a critical reader in the twentieth century history and theory. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Howell, M. (2001). From reliable sources: an introduction to historical methods. New York, NY: Cornell University Press. Tosh, J. (2000). The pursuit of history: aims, methods and new directions in the study of modern history (5th ed.). London: Longman.

Porters Strategy and the internet Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Porters Strategy and the internet - Essay Example Economic value is important because it influences consumer decision to buy a product even above its production cost. Secondly, potential profitability is higher if a company sets itself apart from other businesses as much as possible from the benefits it offers, to the conduct of its business and to the necessary trade-offs it decides to make. A company’s ability to set itself apart from the rest in the market is also reflected in the way it makes and adopts business choices and practices that are integrated into and interdependent with the rest of the system making itself virtually difficult to duplicate. All of the above, however, is only feasible if the company adopts and maintains a continuity of direction repudiating if need be, emerging business practices that tend to veer it away from its established reputation and practices. 2.0Criticisms of the Strategic Positioning View There are several perspectives that conflict with the strategic positioning view of Porter. Barney (1991), for example, although essentially echoing Porter’s six-point formula for strategic positioning especially with respect to good value, uniqueness and inimitability, leans towards resource-based perspective rather than the market-based perspective of Porter (1996) (1991 p 106). On the other hand, Prahalad (1990) subscribes to the idea that a company that can easily adapt itself to the changing market boundaries by an ability to invent or enter new markets or swing customer choices has the more competitive edge.... A company’s ability to set itself apart from the rest in the market is also reflected in the way it makes and adopts business choices and practices that are integrated into and interdependent with the rest of the system making itself virtually difficult to duplicate. All of the above, however, are only feasible if the company adopts and maintains a continuity of direction repudiating, if need be, emerging business practices that tend to veer it away from its established reputation and practices (Porter 2001 63-78; Porter 1996 61-78). 2.0 Criticisms of the Strategic Positioning View There are several perspectives that conflict with the strategic positioning view of Porter. Barney (1991), for example, although essentially echoing Porter’s six-point formula for strategic positioning especially with respect to good value, uniqueness and inimitability, leans towards resource-based perspective rather than the market-based perspective of Porter (1996) (1991 p 106). On the othe r hand, Prahalad (1990) subscribes to the idea that a company that can easily adapt itself to the changing market boundaries by an ability to invent or enter new markets or swing customer choices has more competitive edge. This dynamism essentially conflicts with Porter’s advocacy for strategic continuity to preserve firm identity and reputation. For Prahalad, core competencies or a firm’s collective learning is the heart of a company’s competitive advantage as opposed to Porter’s strategic positioning. Pitt (2001) likewise believes that changes that are now taking place are too fast and the best thing that companies can do is not to rely only on tangible assets but more on intangible assets such as

Analysis of Stock Option in Bristol Myers Squibb Thesis

Analysis of Stock Option in Bristol Myers Squibb - Thesis Example It also uses them to decrease the turnover of the human capital in the organization. An analysis of the organization’s stock options policy reveals information that is promising for investors and the concerned stakeholders. The organization has been using stock options as a large part of their compensation at the executive level. Employees after meeting the criteria set by the organization are allowed to own options and exercise them over a period of 10 years. ESO allows the employees to hold stock options below the market price. The sound corporate governance policy requires that the board meeting and the shareholder’s meeting can decide upon the re-pricing of the options and this cannot take place without the approval of the concerned. The company has been able to decrease the moral hazard relating to the issue of stock options and has provided huge incentives to its employees apart from cash compensation. The morale of the employees is all time high due to the compensation package that they are offered. The company is looking forward to striking maj or deals and re-establishing its name as a bio-pharmaceutical in the world. ESO carry a moral hazard with them, if properly implemented, with sound accounting policies implemented throughout the organization; it is bound to create success for the organization and its employees. Disclosure of proper information increases accountability on the part of management and restricts them from any incorrect actions that they might take. They can be used to decrease moral hazard, increase employee motivation and increase market efficiencies. BMS, with the help of sound corporate governance policies has effectively handled to issue of stock options, taking all the advantages that they possibly can. 16 The paper is organized to provide a basic understanding of how the Employee Stock Option (ESO) works in a Bristol Myers Squibb

Who commits crimes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Who commits crimes - Essay Example According to Wolfgang, Figlio, and Sellin, (1987) a small percentage of offenders commits a large proportion of criminal offenses. Stated in another way, there are only a few individuals who are repeat offenders or career criminals. The common perception of most people is that more criminals equal more crimes, but the theorists above have proven otherwise. Based on studies they have conducted, they advocate that only a number of crimes may actually be attributed to a few people. Their findings are important in the sense that they show the pattern of behavior that we can expect from potential career criminals. Their study points out that most of these career criminals come from a poor background, have a history of delinquency, and have a lower grade point average while they are in high school. In possibly understanding and curtailing criminal tendencies in potential career criminals, we look into the problem children in school. In the cohort study conducted by Wolfgang and his associa tes, they uncovered that many of the male offenders were arrested only once or twice, about 19% of the offenders were repeat offenders, and a very small percentage – about 6% were arrested 5 or more times (Wolfgang, 1972, as quoted by Spelman, 1993). Their study implies that we can unearth career criminals by looking into a small percentage of people in the criminal pool. They are the ones we need to worry about because the criminal justice system has become ineffective in rehabilitating them. In a big way, their time in jail may have actually made them hardened criminals. Their findings also indicate how important it is for us to identify and establish factors which may invite and breed criminal behavior. Simply looking into a person’s race, social class, gender, and age is not enough in order to predict criminal behavior. By tracing the pattern of behavior of one criminal, it will tell us a lot about whether or not he is a potential career criminal (Hagan,

An Effect of Mood-induced Emotions on Forgetting

An Effect of Mood-induced Emotions on Forgetting An effect of mood-induced emotions on forgetting non-retrieved personal autobiographical memories Demet Ay Abstract Retrieval-induced forgetting (RIF) will be investigated with emotional material. Autobiographical memory as a material for presented paradigm gains importance in terms of its emotional component. There are controversial findings about effect of emotional valence on RIF effect between psychological disorder people and control group. While having inhibitory deficit disorder might be related to less RIF effect for negative stimulus, present study also aims to find positivity bias toward emotional component autobiographical memory. Keywords: Retrieval-induced forgetting, emotion, autobiographical memory An effect of mood-induced emotions on forgetting non-retrieved personal autobiographical memories Moods have an influence on several psychological construct like verbal task performance (Gray, 2001), false memories (Storbeck Clore, 2005). Another crucial thing that mood impact on is what we remember (Blix Brennen, 2012) and forget (Bauml Kuhbandner, 2007) from our past. Not only remembering events from one’s personal life but also the fact that which memories and in what ways are forgotten gain importance in recent years (Barnier, Hung, Conway, 2004). Forgetting specific events from our past can be either intentionally or unintentionally, as it names suggested directed forgetting and retrieval-induced forgetting, respectively (Barnier et al., 2004). Retrieval-induced forgetting (RIF) is firstly investigated by Anderson, Bjork, and Bjork (1994). They define the problem of forgetting not in terms of capacity or real forgetting problem but accessibility problem because of retrieving some of items more than the others. To test which items not to be retrieved, they use retrieval-induced paradigm in which is composed of three special phase. In the original version of paradigm, they use word and associative cues such as fruit, vegetables, or car brands. Participants are first exposed to word pairs with specific cue and then they are shown half of items from one of the presented cue and then tested to retrieve all items. Consistent finding for different material among several studies show that practicing particular item inhibits sharing cue item therefore it is less likely remembered than unpracticed category (Murayama, Miyatsu, Buchli, Storm, 2014, for review). RIF effect has been demonstrated for different materials such as lexical c ues (Bajo, Gomez-Ariza, Fernandez, Marful, 2006), pictures (Ford et al., 2004), videos (Miguelez Garcia-Bajos, 2007) and so forth. Effect of emotion on retrieval-induced forgetting has two main questions (Bauml, Pastà ¶tter, Hanslmayr, 2010). First is about current emotional state of participants. Retrieval practice of either positive or neutral emotion-induced participants tend to forget more non-practiced and shared cue items than negative mood induced participants (Bauml, Pastà ¶tter, Hanslmayr, 2010; Bauml and Kuhbandner, 2007). Bauml and Kuhbandner (2007) find empirical evidence for negative state effect in which exposing negative mood during retrieval practice results in lacking of inhibition. Therefore, they remember more non-practice material from practiced category. Neither emotional material nor autobiographical memory gain rather little attendance but Barnier and his colleagues (2004) are firstly attempted to use one’s personal memory as a material for RIF paradigm recently. However, there are controversial findings about an effect of mood on unintentional forgetting resulting from retrieval practice. For example, Barnier and his colleagues (2004) find that participants tend only to forget neutral stimulus, words, rather than emotional positive and negative one when they manipulate participants’ reported autobiographical memory as positive, neutral, and negative. In other words, retrieval-induced forgetting effect occurs only for neutral stimulus. Another consistent finding about remembering or forgetting emotional stimuli and investigating intensity of each stimuli show similar results with above mentioned experiment (Kuhbandner, Bauml, Stiedl, 2009). However, Harris, Sharman, Barnier, and Moulds (2010) find positivity bias tow ard emotional material of autobiographical memory with dysphoric patients. Hauer and Wessel (2006) also find consistently positivity bias in which means remembering more positive memory than negative memory with an addition of classic RIF effect in their first experiment. Since RIF effect is considered as resulting from inhibition (see Storm Levy, 2012, for review), examining the effect for people who have mood-induced disorders like post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD, Amir, Badour, Freese, 2009) and major depression (Groome Sterkaj, 2010) is crucial to investigate effect of mood on RIF effect. Amir and his colleagues (2009) implement the paradigm to PTSD group and either non-trauma exposed group or trauma exposed group. They find the difference between both of control groups and PTSD group in a way that PTSD patients cannot have an ability to inhibit irrelevant material so they do not demonstrate RIF effect. In line with this background, elicited autobiographical memories by participants with regard to each emotion-induced words getting from PANAS (Watson, Clark, Tellegen, 1988) will be used as manipulation across participants and it will hypothesized that memories included negativity will be more impacted from RIF effect based on Harris and colleagues (2010) and Wessel and Hauer (2006) findings. Dependent variable of presented study will be the fact that which material will be remembered and which of them will not be retrieved. Further analysis will be made in terms of emotional ingredients of each emotion. Since population attending this experiment does not have any mood-related disorder, lack of inhibition for positivity will be less expected. Method Participants Participants will be recruited from Yeditepe University psychology undergraduate students by the flyer. Mean age of them will be most probably in between nineteen and twenty-two. Each participants report their past history about the fact that whether they experience mood-related disorder in any part of their life. No one reports such experience. And none of the participants have taken memory course since then. Informed consent will be taken from them and they will be debriefed about an aim of the experiment at the end. Materials Modified version of retrieval-induced paradigm which is investigated by Anderson and his colleagues (1994) will be used in this experiment. Modification was made by Barnier and his colleagues (2004) in order to make it applicable to autobiographical memory. In terms of this procedure, participants’ own past memory that is elicited by them will be used as material. They are willing to report memory in terms of emotional words not just like happy or sad but further higher-order emotions like shame and guilty. Since there are extreme controversies about theory of emotion (Ortony Turner, 1990), affective statements in positive and negative affect scale (PANAS, Watson et al., 1988) in the context of Turkish statements (Genà §Ãƒ ¶z, 2000) will be used as category-cue. Turkish version of scale is consisted of twenty affective statement, ten is closed to positive remaining is closed to negative emotional statements, and each participants will be required to elicit a memory for each emotion-included words. These memories will be used as a material for retrieval-induced paradigm. For control condition, each participant will also elicit two memories in terms of give no valence random word. Since I have enough number of participants, differences between these random words will not be a problem. Procedure Experiment will consist of four distinct phase based on Barnier and his colleagues (2004) experiment in which firstly investigate autobiographical memory in the RIF paradigm. Elicitation phase will involve that memories will be recorded for each participants orally by using audio recorder. Participants will be required to answer five wh- questions specifically. These recording will be transferred into written type by blind people. Rest of the experiment will be conducted a week after from elicitation phase. Deception will take place by saying the fact that an aim of the experiment is to investigate emotional valence of past memories of university students. Learning phase of the experiment will take place individually. Each participant will be shown their own memories elicited a week ago. During retrieval practice phase participants will be half of either exposed to closed-to-positive valence word’s memory or vice versa randomly. Name of each variable will be used as Anderson a nd his colleagues (1994) used. At the final phase of the classic retrieval-induced paradigm, each participant will be asked to retrieve all memories. At the end, emotional intensity of each category cue and elicited memories will be collected by 5 type likert scale. Expected results In the first place, relative emotional intensity among each triggered words will be rated to participants by five likert-type scale by attributing 1 to extremely negative valence and 5 to extremely positive valence after experimental paradigm will be done. Furthermore, relative emotional intensity of each autobiographical memory will also be rated by participants. Results will be expected in a way that hypothesis is constructed. Series of one way analysis of variance (ANOVA) will be used to test hypothesis. To begin with, randomly assigned elicited memories in terms of category cue will be manipulated. Each cue will be analyzed within themselves. Finally, closed-to-positive and closed-to-negative memories (10 for each) will be compared to each other. Positivity bias will also be expected consistent with Hauer and Wessel (2006) finding. Discussion Retrieval-induced forgetting can be said that it has functional importance in terms of different situations such as psychological disorders (Amir et al., 2009). They found lack of inhibition for negative emotional material in PTSD patients. This finding suggests that if neurological basis of RIF can be reliably investigated then PTSD can be figured out by this method. Present study also aims to find specific effect of emotional autobiographical memory on inhibition in which is regarded most probably as reason for RIF (Storm Levy, 2012). Investigating an effect of emotion on any construct is one of the hardest but crucial questions. Result of this experiment will give rise to further questions into the field in a way that how each specific emotion-included material affects unintentional forgetting for people. Neurological basis of the RIF as a phenomenon is recently investigated with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI, Kuhl, Dudukovich, Kahn, Wagner, 2007), and electrophysiological methods (Hellerstedt Johansson, 2014). According to Johansson and his colleagues (2007), ERP studies should shed light first possible correlates of ERP with regard to RIF, and inhibitory mechanisms with regard to individual differences on RIF scores. Further studies about neurological basis of RIF should be accounted for possible specific location activation during retrieval practice in terms of emotional content of the material. I expect special amygdala activation during retrieval practice when negative-correlated stimulus is presented. Reference List Amir, N., Badour, C. L., Freese, B. (2009). The effect of retrieval on recall of information in individuals with posttraumatic stress disorder.Journal of anxiety disorders,23(4), 535-540. Anderson, M. C., Bjork, R. A., Bjork, E. L. (1994). Remembering can cause forgetting: retrieval dynamics in long-term memory.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition,20(5), 1063. Bajo, M. T., Gà ³mez-Ariza, C. J., Fernandez, A., Marful, A. (2006). Retrieval-induced forgetting in perceptually driven memory tests. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 32(5), 1185. Barnier, A., Hung, L., Conway, M. (2004). Retrievalà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ induced forgetting of emotional and unemotional autobiographical memories.Cognition and Emotion,18(4), 457-477. Bà ¤uml, K. H., Kuhbandner, C. (2007). Remembering can cause forgetting—but not in negative moods.Psychological Science,18(2), 111-115. Bà ¤uml, K. H., Pastà ¶tter, B., Hanslmayr, S. (2010). Binding and inhibition in episodic memory—Cognitive, emotional, and neural processes. Neuroscience Biobehavioral Reviews, 34(7), 1047-1054. Blix, I., Brennen, T. (2012). Retrieval-induced forgetting after trauma: A study with victims of sexual assault.Cognition emotion,26(2), 321-331. Ford, R. M., Keating, S., Patel, R. (2004). Retrievalà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ induced forgetting: A developmental study. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 22(4), 585-603. Genà §Ãƒ ¶z, T. (2000). Positive and Negative Affect Schedule: A study of validity and reliability. Tà ¼rk Psikoloji Dergisi. Gray, J. R. (2001). Emotional modulation of cognitive control: Approach–withdrawal states double-dissociate spatial from verbal two-back task performance.Journal of Experimental Psychology: General,130(3), 436. Harris, C. B., Sharman, S. J., Barnier, A. J., Moulds, M. L. (2010). Mood and retrievalà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ induced forgetting of positive and negative autobiographical memories.Applied Cognitive Psychology,24(3), 399-413. Hauer, B. J., Wessel, I. (2006). Retrievalà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ induced forgetting of autobiographical memory details.Cognition Emotion,20(3-4), 430-447. Hellerstedt, R., Johansson, M. (2014). Electrophysiological correlates of competitor activation predict retrieval-induced forgetting.Cerebral Cortex,24(6), 1619-1629. Kuhbandner, C., Bà ¤uml, K. H., Stiedl, F. C. (2009). Retrieval-induced forgetting of negative stimuli: The role of emotional intensity.Cognition and Emotion,23(4), 817-830. Kuhl, B. A., Dudukovic, N. M., Kahn, I., Wagner, A. D. (2007). Decreased demands on cognitive control reveal the neural processing benefits of forgetting.Nature neuroscience,10(7), 908-914. Murayama, K., Miyatsu, T., Buchli, D., Storm, B. C. (2014). Forgetting as a consequence of retrieval: A meta-analytic review of retrieval-induced forgetting. Psychological bulletin,140(5), 1383. Ortony, A., Turner, T. J. (1990). Whats basic about basic emotions?. Psychological review,97(3), 315. Storbeck, J., Clore, G. L. (2005). With Sadness Comes Accuracy; With Happiness, False Memory Mood and the False Memory Effect.Psychological Science,16(10), 785-791. Storm, B. C., Levy, B. J. (2012). A progress report on the inhibitory account of retrieval-induced forgetting.Memory cognition,40(6), 827-843. Watson, D., Clark, L. A., Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: the PANAS scales.Journal of personality and social psychology,54(6), 1063.

Essay --

There were many great composers during the late baroque period, each with their own distinct talents. Each composer played a key role in shaping the baroque period. Arcangelo Corelli was one of those important composers that influenced many people during his time. He lived in Italy from 1653 to 1713. He was a composer, teacher, and a violinist. Corelli was an influential person in the baroque period; â€Å"History has remembered him with such titles as ‘Founder of Modern Violin Technique,’ the ‘World's First Great Violinist,’ and the ‘Father of the Concerto Grosso.’† (Arcangelo Corelli: A Concise Biography). Little was known about Corelli’s early life. Arcangelo Corelli was born in Fusignano, Italy. His mother, Santa Raffini, named him after his father who had passed away a month before he was conceived. Corelli’s mother had to raise five children, including Arcangelo, by herself. However, she was well of because she owned land and was fairly wealthy. When he was thirteen, he began learning about music from Leonardo Brugnol. Corelli studied about the violin at Bologna. Eventually, at age... Essay -- There were many great composers during the late baroque period, each with their own distinct talents. Each composer played a key role in shaping the baroque period. Arcangelo Corelli was one of those important composers that influenced many people during his time. He lived in Italy from 1653 to 1713. He was a composer, teacher, and a violinist. Corelli was an influential person in the baroque period; â€Å"History has remembered him with such titles as ‘Founder of Modern Violin Technique,’ the ‘World's First Great Violinist,’ and the ‘Father of the Concerto Grosso.’† (Arcangelo Corelli: A Concise Biography). Little was known about Corelli’s early life. Arcangelo Corelli was born in Fusignano, Italy. His mother, Santa Raffini, named him after his father who had passed away a month before he was conceived. Corelli’s mother had to raise five children, including Arcangelo, by herself. However, she was well of because she owned land and was fairly wealthy. When he was thirteen, he began learning about music from Leonardo Brugnol. Corelli studied about the violin at Bologna. Eventually, at age...

Holden Caulfield

In the novel The Catcher in the Rye by J. D. Slinger the main character Holder Coalfield is obsessed with phonies and the loss of innocence. To Him almost everybody are phonies especially those who have lost their Innocence. According to Holder there Is only one thing that can cause one to lose their innocence and that Is sex. Throughout the entire novel Holder Is confronted with sex. In every confrontation with sex he â€Å"runs away' due to his fear of growing older. Holder never wants to become an adult therefore he never wants to have sex.It is obvious that the only thing in his mind that will make him an adult is sex because he smokes and drinks alcohol throughout the novel. Many believe that those two acts along with other things bring about the change from childhood to adulthood. However Holder commits these acts and still believes he maintains his innocence. Even through all his fear Holder also seems to be fascinated with sex. When he meets up with Carl Luck he constantly a sk him questions about sex. This shows that Holder is both fascinated and disgusted with sex.He seems to be more concerned with other people's innocence, especially Jane. He is so concerned he gets into a fight with his roommate Seedeater because he thinks he had sex with Jane. After this Incident Holder continues to contemplate calling Jane but always decides not to. This shows he Is worried he will find out that that she did have sex. If she did have sex then she would be a phony to him and he would lose the girl of his dreams to adulthood. Holder's feelings toward sex are a direct reflection of his creator J. D. Slinger. J. D. Clinger's opinion towards sex is one in the same with Holder's.J. D. Slinger as with many women throughout his life. All of them had a consistency of being young when he met them. Even as he grew older he still had relationships with younger women. Slinger was married three times throughout his life. During his time with his second wife they had children to gether. After she had the children he lost interest in her and spent most of his time writing. He had lost his appeal towards her because she was no longer young and Innocent. They ended up getting a divorce due to his seclusion from her. After a while he then met a girl named Jean Miller by a LOL.She was only fourteen when they began their five year relationship. Their relationship ended due to the topic of sex. She was a vulgar and she brought up the topic of sex to Slinger. The moment she showed interest in having sex he lost Joyce Maynard. She was yet again a young and innocent girl Just like the rest that came before her. One day she told Slinger that she wanted to have children. He immediately lost interest and broke up with her. These relationships show that Slinger has the same view towards sex as his most famous character HolderCoalfield. In the sass sex was a main symbol of adulthood. Many believed that they should wait until marriage to have sex. However at that time men and women were deviating from that accepted belief. Sex started to become like what it is today meaningless. It became more about pleasure and less about love. At this time people were beginning not to see sex as a transfer from childhood to adulthood. However Slinger still believed that sex was the main transfer. He wrote The Catcher in the Rye because it would be controversial during this time period.Everyone no matter how the felt towards sex were amazed with a novel written like this. It became one of the most popular and questioned novels of its time. Both Holder and Clinger's view on sex is it is the end of childhood and the beginning of adulthood. In the novel Holder shows this view first hand through experiences he had. Clinger's many relationships with young women supports this view as well. There are some who believe that sex is not the beginning of adulthood. However sex was and always will be the main transfer from childhood to adulthood. Holden Caulfield In the novel The Catcher in the Rye by J. D. Slinger the main character Holder Coalfield is obsessed with phonies and the loss of innocence. To Him almost everybody are phonies especially those who have lost their Innocence. According to Holder there Is only one thing that can cause one to lose their innocence and that Is sex. Throughout the entire novel Holder Is confronted with sex. In every confrontation with sex he â€Å"runs away' due to his fear of growing older. Holder never wants to become an adult therefore he never wants to have sex.It is obvious that the only thing in his mind that will make him an adult is sex because he smokes and drinks alcohol throughout the novel. Many believe that those two acts along with other things bring about the change from childhood to adulthood. However Holder commits these acts and still believes he maintains his innocence. Even through all his fear Holder also seems to be fascinated with sex. When he meets up with Carl Luck he constantly a sk him questions about sex. This shows that Holder is both fascinated and disgusted with sex.He seems to be more concerned with other people's innocence, especially Jane. He is so concerned he gets into a fight with his roommate Seedeater because he thinks he had sex with Jane. After this Incident Holder continues to contemplate calling Jane but always decides not to. This shows he Is worried he will find out that that she did have sex. If she did have sex then she would be a phony to him and he would lose the girl of his dreams to adulthood. Holder's feelings toward sex are a direct reflection of his creator J. D. Slinger. J. D. Clinger's opinion towards sex is one in the same with Holder's.J. D. Slinger as with many women throughout his life. All of them had a consistency of being young when he met them. Even as he grew older he still had relationships with younger women. Slinger was married three times throughout his life. During his time with his second wife they had children to gether. After she had the children he lost interest in her and spent most of his time writing. He had lost his appeal towards her because she was no longer young and Innocent. They ended up getting a divorce due to his seclusion from her. After a while he then met a girl named Jean Miller by a LOL.She was only fourteen when they began their five year relationship. Their relationship ended due to the topic of sex. She was a vulgar and she brought up the topic of sex to Slinger. The moment she showed interest in having sex he lost Joyce Maynard. She was yet again a young and innocent girl Just like the rest that came before her. One day she told Slinger that she wanted to have children. He immediately lost interest and broke up with her. These relationships show that Slinger has the same view towards sex as his most famous character HolderCoalfield. In the sass sex was a main symbol of adulthood. Many believed that they should wait until marriage to have sex. However at that time men and women were deviating from that accepted belief. Sex started to become like what it is today meaningless. It became more about pleasure and less about love. At this time people were beginning not to see sex as a transfer from childhood to adulthood. However Slinger still believed that sex was the main transfer. He wrote The Catcher in the Rye because it would be controversial during this time period.Everyone no matter how the felt towards sex were amazed with a novel written like this. It became one of the most popular and questioned novels of its time. Both Holder and Clinger's view on sex is it is the end of childhood and the beginning of adulthood. In the novel Holder shows this view first hand through experiences he had. Clinger's many relationships with young women supports this view as well. There are some who believe that sex is not the beginning of adulthood. However sex was and always will be the main transfer from childhood to adulthood.